When planning any archaeological excavation there are a number of methods that can be used to gather information before any soil is touched such as the acquisition of historical maps. In this case aerial photography has provided us with the image where we can clearly see a crop-mark likely to be an Iron Age enclosure and a Bronze Age barrow cemetery. Aerial photography is an excellent way to see the layout of the land and notice features too faint to recognise from ground level. Aerial photography consists of taking the pictures; reconnaissance and studying the pictures by sometimes referring to archived maps of the same area; mapping. It is an essential starting point to any archaeological site.

As we are told that field-walking has taken place in the surrounding areas and has uncovered pottery and Iron/Bronze Age metal artefacts then field-walking would be an ideal ground level starting point for this archaeological excavation. Field walking can be done linear or in a grid but requires individuals to walk a designated route (transects) in a specific area of the site and look for any artefacts or archaeologically useful finds within their parameters. In this case it is likely that field walking will produce some artefacts if there have been finds in the surrounding areas and using the aerial photography. Anything found must be recorded with specific location for further analysis at a later stage. A Metal Detector would be useful to use at this stage due to the metal objects found in the surrounding areas. A metal detector will detect any metal objects such as coins, weapons that are not buried too deeply under the surface.

Once all surface artefacts have been recovered or recorded via the field-walking process then sub-ground level surveys can be carried out to give us a better image of the ground beneath us. There are various methods that can be used called prospecting or remote sensing techniques such as a Resistivity Survey, Magnetometry and Ground-Penetrating Radars.

A Resistivity Survey is a form of geophysical survey where an electrical current is passed through the ground at regulated points on a grid. The current passed through the soil will show up any points of lower or higher conductive resistance than the normal ground. Once mapped, this can indicate where artefacts and other points of interest are buried. For example, walls, mounds, voids, rubble or cobbled areas will be of higher resistance than is surrounding soil. A resistivity survey would be useful for pre-excavation research into Iron Age enclosures and Bronze Age barrows. However, there are problems in using a resistivity survey. The resistivity is highly affected by weather conditions and levels of moisture in the soil. If the soil is too dry the results may not be completely accurate as everything will be equally as dry. On the other hand if the soil is too wet there will be similar problems because artefacts may not vary in conductivity as much from sodden topsoil surrounding it. This means that two surveys carried out on the same spot in different weather conditions can render differing results.

A Magnetometry Survey is a way of measuring or mapping the magnetism levels in the soil. The reason this technique is useful is in ancient times activities such as burning objects would leave a permanent magnetic trace (iron particles) which we can detect today by using specialist equipment. In relation to our Bronze and Iron Age features, Magnetometry may show us an area where items have been burnt or holes have been filled with burnt items such as perhaps in a Bronze Age Barrow. Magnetometry will also show the difference in magnetic levels of any buried object, structure or artefact for example a stone wall may give a lower reading than the soil around it. Used in conjunction with the Resistivity Survey we can then make a fairly accurate map of what lies beneath the designated site and thus know where about to start excavating.

Ground penetrating radar could also be used in post-excavation. A ground penetrating radar send a radio signal into the ground or soul which shows the density of the material below via reflections. Ground penetrating radar can show building foundations, larger artefacts and holes such. If used in conjunction with our Resistivity and Magnetometry Surveys the Ground penetrating radar may shed more light on the overall picture of what lies beneath the ground. Ground penetrating radar on its own in this situation would not be the most effective method of pre-excavation.

Excavation itself is a costly and destructive method as you are destroying the earth to find what is hidden beneath. Once the pre-excavation methods have been used to identify the areas that are worth excavating, the excavation itself must be done carefully. A good starting point would be to lay out grids of 5m squares, which makes recording the excavation much simpler. There are two main methods of excavation, one which look at a large area but at the same depth and another which looks at smaller areas but much deeper. The first will show us special relationship between artefacts within the layer and the first can be more useful for soil stratification. The Wheeler Box-Grid (Archaeology Theories, Methods and Practice, 112) tries to compromise on this by leaving intact pieces of earth on the grid-lines to show the soil stratification whilst covering a larger horizontal area. In this case it would be more useful to pick selected squares in the grid to excavate in relation to the pre-excavation findings and so as to benefit from both types of excavation methods.

Artefacts found must be recovered and accurately recorded into a catalogue. The dig is recorded day by day and any features or structures too large to remove (in situ) must be accurately documented and recorded by scale drawings, photography and any other means as they may be destroyed when trying to access lower layers of the excavation site.

Once the site has been excavated and the smaller artefacts removed, post-excavation methods can be used to gather more information. The post-excavation of this site could include many methods such as Radiocarbon dating, Pollen Dating, Historical Dating, Soil Stratigraphy, Archaeomagnetic Dating and TL and OSL Dating.

Archaeomagnetic Dating is useful when dealing with burnt matter. This would be useful when looking at our Bronze Age barrow for example. It measures the orientation of the iron particles in relation to the magnetic pole. As the magnetic pole moves, the iron particles remain stationary and so it is possible to approximate the era when the matter was burnt. This method can produce one or more dates due to the movement of the earth’s magnetic pole and so the archaeologist must consider this and make an assumption in relation to other methods of dating such as radiocarbon. Another drawback of this method is that the tests must be done ‘in situ’ as the ancient magnetic direction cannot be compared with today’s from a different location due to the result being dictated by region.

Radiocarbon dating measures the time elapsed since the death of organic materials. When animals or plants expire the carbon and C-14 within them slowly declines giving trained analysts a way to measure with reasonable accuracy how long ago the organic matter was ‘alive’. This combined and calibrated with other methods of post-excavation, most popularly Dendrochronology or pollen dating, produces fairly accurate results and time scales. In this case Dendrochronology is not particularly useful. Thought radiocarbon dating has been used on metal objects it had not be proven the most accurate method of dating for metal due to the amount of variables that can influence the measurements of carbon. Radiocarbon dating however is the most popular method used with organic materials and in relation to our Iron Age enclosure and Bronze age Barrow it could prove useful.

TL and OSL Dating, Thermoluminescence and Optically Stimulated Luminescence are dating techniques that can tell us when the artefact was last heated or last exposed to light. This works especially well with natural materials used in things such as pottery or stone tools unlike radiocarbon dating that can only be used on organic materials. These artefacts trap electrons on a constant basis starting from when they were first made by heating/firing and a trained analyst can count the electrons within the artefact to see how long ago the object was fired. This method also works with items and soils that our buried, the sunlight can be enough to start the process of trapping electrons and then after the matter is buried dating is possible on the amount of electrons trapped.

Another few methods which can be used in post-excavation dating for our site can be Historical Chronology, Pollen-Dating and Soil Stratigraphy. Pollen Dating is simply the analysis by palynologists of the pollen left in the layers of soil that can determine the vegetation of the area at that time and thus date the site. Pollen is preserved better in bog or lake sediments but it is not impossible to find pollen in other types of sites. Soil Stratigraphy looks at the layers of soil in a given section of the excavation site on the assumption that the layers further down are the oldest and the layers on top are the newest. Historical Chronology uses data already known about the area to match and infer dates. Used alongside with other methods such as radiocarbon and thermoluminescent dating, Historical Chronology has its place.

There are many different methods that can be used pre-excavation, during excavation and post-excavation but archaeology is not a predictable thing and thus it is always better to see at the time what are the best methods to use in relation to the exact findings. It is impossible to predict which methods would be best but we can make an educated guess.

Education looked at as a social enterprise deemed essential for human survival, is a formal system extending from nursery school to prestigious universities. This is so in every civilised country in the world. Having gone through the system from infancy to youth and maturity, and acquired a formal education culminating in graduate and post-graduate qualifications, it is fair to assume that the end product would be an educated person. However, this is not always so. The word ‘product’ is unlikely to be associated with a truly educated person. It has the connotations of a process conducted on factory premises. This process, at best, is training for a specific purpose, such as a job, profession, or career. It also has associations of standardisation, which may cater to the ambitions of the vast majority of people. But the truly educated person, is his own person, and is unique. He or she stands out from the crowd. He/she is likely to be well-trained to hold a position of responsibility within an organisation, but that is not what defines him/her.

What distinguishes the truly educated person is his/her independence of thought and strength of character. The mass market does not necessarily enthral such people. For such persons education does not stop with the acquisition of degrees. Education for them is a lifelong process. An educated person is unlikely to be a celebrity. They do not seek publicity at any cost. They are persons of integrity. They usually abide by the society’s norms, but will always challenge them, if they are unjust, or indefensible. However badly or indifferently they were treated during their lifetime, posterity will always accord them their due. Think of Abraham Lincoln, Martin Luther King,and Nelson Mandela. Of course great intellects of the calibre of Newton and Einstein are among the educated. So are those who developed their aesthetic sensibilities through art, music, drama and literature. Who would forget Michael Angelo, Beethoven, Shakespeare, and Tolstoy? What about the philosophers, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle? Innovators in any field or discipline, including religious leaders like Buddha and Confucius, were not only among the educated, but they were also great educators.

That brings us to the role of the teacher in education. The teacher does not know it all. As Galileo said, ‘You cannot teach a man anything, you can only help him find it within himself.’ Any other form of teaching would be indoctrination. Telling others what to think is not teaching. On the other hand, as Epictetus, the Greek philosopher said, ‘Only the educated are free.’ Teaching is a collaborative effort as exemplified by the Socratic dialogue. People learn not only from teachers at a school or university but from almost everybody around them starting with parents, close relatives, even neighbours, and continuing their education through books and other media. The educated person is all too aware, that he/she knows very little, and therefore is always prepared to learn.

Increasingly, we are told that we live in a knowledge society, the post-capitalist society. This means that there are such sheer volumes of information now than ever there was on the planet. All this information is embodied in books, databanks, and software programmes, but their possession is not equated with education. It is the educated person who embodies and manages such knowledge in the interests of total global well being. As Bill Gates has demonstrated, with knowledge as the key resource, the educated person faces new demands, challenges, commitments, and responsibilities. We are not talking of ‘polymaths’ here, which is a concept from the past, perhaps only applicable to Leonardo da Vinci. The truly educated person now has to be a citizen of the world with deep and genuine empathy for others from quite different cultural milieu. It helps if the educated person travels to other parts of the world and gains first-hand experience of conditions far from home. ‘Think globally, act locally’ is likely to be the motto of today’s educated person.

To conclude this essay two well-known educators are cited. They have listed what they think are qualities needed which define the educated person. John Taylor Gatto who was once named New York State’s Teacher of the Year lists the following:

1) Establish an individual set of values but recognize those of the surrounding community and of the various cultures of the world.
2) Explore their own ancestry, culture and place.
3) Are comfortable being alone, yet understand dynamics between people and form healthy relationships.
4) Accept mortality, knowing that every choice affects the generations to come.
5) Create new things and find new experiences.
6) Think for themselves, observe, analyze, and discover truth without relying on the opinions of others.
7) Favor love, curiosity, reverence and empathy rather than material wealth.
8) Choose a vocation that contributes to the common good.
9) Enjoy a variety of new places and experiences but identify and cherish a place to call home.
10) Express their own voice with confidence.
11) Add value to every encounter and every group of which they are a part.
12) Always ask: Who am I? Where are my limits? What are my possibilities?

Adapted from Gatto, John Taylor (2009) Weapons of Mass Instruction, New Society Publishers.

A shorter list from another source reads:

1) Has a deep and genuine empathy, striving to understand others, with the ability to withhold their own judgment until they are sure they do understand.
2) Is sensitive to the psychological, physical, moral and cultural milieu in which they find themselves, showing respect and caring at all times.
3) Has a clear understanding of their own values, wants and preferences without wishing to impose these on others.
4) Is independent within the constraints of collaborative living, in action and thought taking responsibility for the health and well-being of their body and their mind.
5) Understands the connectedness of everything in the world, and even in the universe and so acts responsibly in everything they do.
6) Is congruent, meaning that the person will be comfortable in their own skin, able to acknowledge their own feelings and the feelings of others without condescension.

The Great Depression slashed its way through Toronto during the period between 1929 and 1939. A decade long unemployment slump that saw Toronto unemployment swell to 30% while wages dropped. Excepting Swansea and Forest Hill, municipal governments in the greater Toronto area went bankrupt. Whether you were a college graduate or a mill worker with barely any education, the pinch was felt by everybody.

Changes to Housing

While the situation got so bad some people ended up homeless, more subtle changes came in the form of smaller homes becoming more popular, further out from the city centre, and a move so that 30% of the population would be living in apartments. Construction declined for the period, due to a lack of investment, except for in that one area of residential homes. Though there wasn’t the money to reform slums, there was municipal investment in renovating poorer houses in Toronto during this period.

Changes to Family Life and Politics

The economic pressure was undoubtedly stressful on everyone involved, and anecdotes from the period speak of domestic violence and arguments fueled by lack of opportunities. Meanwhile marriages declined as people simply couldn’t afford to start families. Meanwhile socialist political movements got more popular. This was also the birthplace of many social programs as Toronto gained a Civic Employment Office and Central Bureau for Unemployment Relief during this period.

Changes to Labour

It was not a good time to be an unskilled worker. Industrial production plummeted, and factory workers were one of the hardest hit sectors. Meanwhile, servants became too expensive for general employment by the middle class, but at the same time, new jobs opened up for women. This was mostly confined to traditional spheres, but the role of the female secretary became more established, with women taking classes at a career or business administration college. In many cases their salary would then go to help out their families. As in any time of economic strife, people having trouble finding work looked to education, but only if they could afford it.

The Great Depression ended with the Second World War, but the legacy of the Depression lives on, in the architecture from the period, in family stories and in the social programs that we enjoy today. Today, student study the economic origins in history and accounting courses in Toronto. They learn about stock market collapses and soil erosion problems, and also the different strategies that might avert a second crisis. And the landscape of Toronto has changed. It’s become the economic leader in Canada. Though the global financial situation is never a sure thing, and even the provincial economy can be worrisome at times, at least Toronto weathered the first disaster and kept many of the measures that made it survivable.

Toronto has changed a great deal over the centuries. Initially the settled area of Huron tribes, it became a contested property in colonial wars. Though it was well situated near trade convenient waterways, Toronto’s development into a Canadian economic powerhouse was a slow building thing.

Early Settlers

As part of New France, the initial economy of the area that now holds the Greater Toronto Area (GTA), was a loosely populated part of the fur trade. Even a switch to an agricultural economy did not begin until the territory was handed over to English colonists. An influx of settlers into Ontario, with the arrival of Loyalist refugees caused a population boom, while fears of an American invasion would make it the provincial capital. At the time it was called ‘York’ and was overshadowed by Kingston, but its status as a capital encouraged growth. In 1832 the area was finally given the familiar Toronto name with a municipal incorporation, the first in Canada. Still, administration relied heavily on imported labour. At this time it would be impossible to find much in the way of law or accounting courses in Toronto!

Going Industrial

Toronto would also play a part in Confederation, being at the epicentre of one of the two revolutions that encouraged Canadian independence. Then the industrial revolution came to Toronto’s agrarian fueled economy as it did to other parts of the British Empire. Rail networks made it a major transportation hub, and businesses cropped up along the rail line, both manufacturing and the mail order catalogue central offices that defined consumerism in the period. The city became more established, and though it had had a university since 1827, the training options, from engineer to business administration college, greatly expanded. Still, most of the population thought of itself as affiliated with their home countries, often somewhere in the British Isles.

World Wars and Beyond

Two world wars rocked the planet. For the area, both times the country went on war footing and volunteers put aside civilian lives, whether farmer in the outskirts or half way through accounting courses in Toronto, and went across the Atlantic to fight. Factories churned out war products and supplies. By the end of the Second World War, Toronto was starting to look like the modern city we know today. Montreal still held greater economic prominence, but that would shift with language changes until Toronto would eventually become Canada’s economic capital.

Today, many national head offices, and international head offices are based here. Students flock from around the world to enroll in everything from the old university to tiny, to a private web design or business administration college. The population still has heavy immigration, but it’s global rather than mostly European. And the future continues to look bright.

There must be various kinds of writing assignment which student will get during their education period including writing review assignment. It must always be hard for many students to accomplish the writing assignment with the best result because they do not understand well about how to write a great review or they just do not have enough time for collecting the reference or they just do not have proper writing skill. No matter what the reason, the fact that they are unable to make the best review result is undeniable.

The review can be found in various forms including the article review. This kind of review sounds simple because student only needs to read the article and explain their opinion about the article. However, how to write article review is not easy at all because it have to be tackled in the way which is distinct and organized. It is crucial for having exact understanding about the article and making note from it. However, the most important thing is that they have to make the plan according to the exact thing which the instructor what to read when the article is finished and submitted.

The main thing students have to do when writing review is reading or watching something and write the article based on their note and opinion. Writing poetry analysis is another form of review assignment which students have to make. There is no doubt that many students have very big question about how to write poetry analysis in good way. Choosing the question which is critical or certain is important. Thinking of the time when the poetry was written and tries to make relation with the event in the poetry is necessary to analyze the poetry theme. Someone who is addressed by the author in the poem should be read. It is better to highlight the most powerful word and read the poem out loud.